Introduction: Research Methods in Communication

Research is the systematic gathering of information to understand situations and to check out assumptions about the public. It can also be termed as the systematic investigation of a question, phenomenon, or problem that follows a particular principle. In other words, research follows a particular “methodology”. Methodology refers to the process, principles and procedures by which we approach problems and seek answers. According to Drew (1980) research is a systematic method of inquiry for generating new knowledge, asking questions, highlighting new experiences, solving problems, and understanding current situations. Research involves the process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. In research, inquiry or critical examination of a given problem must be carried out diligently. The aim of research is to reduce uncertainty in decision making. Research has to be a logical, purposeful, formal and critical activity meant to create knowledge. It can also be defined as a scientific endeavor to explain, predict and control phenomena.

Research can also be summarized as follows:

1. An original contribution to existing knowledge; by being objective and systematic in finding solutions to a problem in research.

2. A voyage of discovery; an adventure in finding solutions to a problem.

3. The pursuit of truth; through studying, observation, and experimentation.

4. The search of knowledge – finding solutions to a problem in research.

In scientific research, assumptions must be specified in order to differentiate it from other methods.

In the scientific world, research is done for the following reasons:

1. To add to existing knowledge

2. To prove and disapprove theory

3. To solve practical problems on the ground with/through research findings

Types of Research and Research Designs

There are different types of research and research designs. Testing of research procedures must satisfy some criteria of logical consistency expressed in a research design.

The function of research is to explore, describe and analyze events. These three functions are also the different types of research:

a) Explanatory research

b) Descriptive research

c) Analytical research

d) Evaluation Research

e) Participatory Research

Explanatory Research

This is conducted to study events for example when a natural and man-made event occurs and how the media handles the issue. One could explore how a given media helped the affected people in terms of communication. For example, during elections research can be done to explore how the media covered the elections and presidential candidates. In the social sciences, explanatory research typically is used to prove and find theory of how the media reacts to disaster.

Descriptive Research

This kind of research describes a phenomenon as they exist. It thus this describes people and places and things. The researcher describes people and phenomena. This type of research is used to identify and obtain information on the specifics of a particular issue.

Analytical Research

Analytical research attempts to answer the why question. It normally involves an examination of many different types of a phenomenon/situation. In designing analytical study, it is essential that many aspects are included in the methodology e.g. a study to analyze and explain why young girls/females mostly love reading fashion, style and relationship stories in newspapers. However, it is important to note that when a research is described as explanatory, descriptive or analytical; this description refers to the major task of the study. Many studies embrace all these. For example, an analytical attempt to find out why husbands prefer watching action movies at night while their wives are waiting in the bedroom at the expense of giving attention to their families can have the descriptive aspect at least of the sample of the study as well as explore domestic requirements of a parent.

Evaluation Research

This kind of research takes two aspects which depend on the stage of the project: 1. Formative evaluation (normally done at an early stage) to investigate whether the theoretical content of the programme has been correctly adapted to social reality. 2. Summative evaluation which takes place at the end of a project after the programme has been fully developed with the aim of assessing the end results of a programme.

Participatory Research

This kind of research is different from other classical scientific approaches as it claims to be not only a tool for expanding human knowledge but also for action. The action is normally reflected in the participatory aspect of the research and takes place in two phases:

a) By the active involvement of people as participants in identifying and consequently investigating a problem.

b) By the direct active participation of people in finding a solution to the self-identified problem and implementing the solution in the process of “intelligent intervention”.

Identification of a Research Problem/Topic

Research can be motivated by different things. It may be motivated by the desire to know for the sake of knowing or by the desire to solve practical problems. The researcher, who is associated with practical problems, need not identify problems, since he has many problems on hand. But the researcher, who is associated with academic institutions, has to identify possible problems for investigation.

In simple words, problem means a question thrown forward for a solution. A problem exists when an individual interacts with his environment and finds himself in a state of questioning, doubting or uncertainty.

Problems may be classified as:

1. Conceptual problems - which can be solved by creative thinking, selection and synthesis.

2. Logical problems - which are solved by deductive methods and

3. Empirical problems - which are solved by inductive reasoning based upon observation of phenomena.

In specific problem solving research, a research is concerned with application of research methods to find satisfactory solution to a pressing problem. In a business there are numerous problems which need solutions. Because of limited resources, it is essential to identify only the important problems. In the field of academic research also, the researcher will be able to identify several problems but he can screen them out by preliminary selection.

A problem clearly and accurately stated is a problem that often is well on its way to being solved. Before research or fact finding can successfully start, the investigator must know what the problem is and why a solution is wanted. The “what” of a problem is answered by an accurate definition of a situation. The “why” can be established by the determination of the uses to which the findings will be or can be put.

The following approaches may be used to find problem areas:

1. Asking Experts

If the problems are to be identified, it is important to ask experts in the area of research. This can be done by attending professional society meetings and listening to the business executives. The researcher can also interview the executives to be conversant with various issues.

2. Become a Specialist

Knowledge knows no bounds. It is very difficult to acquired knowledge in a wide area of study. Therefore the researcher may select a narrow area of both theoretical and practical significance. He can make himself an expert in the field through course work and independent reading.

3. Searching the Literature A researcher should read professional journals in his area of concentration, masters‟ theses, doctoral dissertations, research reports and government publications. Through survey of literature the researcher will discover unanswered questions which require answers, the solutions of various scholars to the same problem and research studies in progress at other institutions on the same problems.

4. Exploring areas of Interest

A researcher needs to read critical articles appearing in periodicals and newspapers. He should discuss the issues with professors and colleagues and listen to their critical points of view. The critical articles and discussions will enable the researcher to identify many possible problems.

5. Look for current Development

Current developments in a particular field of specialization provide scope for many topics. For instance, installation of electronic computer in business establishments suggests a number of topics for research. One can opt to conduct a research on the media‟s digital migration.

6. Maintain a Diary

The researcher should keep a diary and jot down questions and ideas that strike him/her. In the course of his reading, discussion with colleagues, in having contacts with business executives and in the meditative moment, the curious and scientifically oriented researcher will always be wondering and critically evaluating. He/she has to document the ideas. If any idea flashes in his mind, he should jot it down on any piece of paper available.

7. Examining the gap between Theory and Practice

The researcher may identify problems by re-examining the theoretical structure of the area of research in which he/she is interested. He/she may also find the gap between theory and practice. Afterwards, the researcher may find out the way to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

Variables

Research in the mass media like in social sciences is mostly based on the study of variables. A variable can be defined as anything that takes on different values. The values can differ at various times for the same object or persons. Variables may for example include production units attendance, readership/listening style, motivation, age, level of education, occupation etc. A variable can also refer to something that can be manipulated or controlled especially in an experiment. Therefore, a variable can be measured, manipulated or controlled. Variables can also refer to an object, event, idea, feeling, time period or other type of category being measured in a research design. There are two types of variables; independent variable and dependent variable. Independent variable (experimental or predictor variable) is a variable that is being manipulated in an experiment so as to observe the effect on a dependent variable (outcome variable). Independent variable stands alone and is not changed by other variables. For example, someone‟s age might be an independent variable. On the other hand, dependent variable, just like the name suggests is something that depends on other factors. An example of a dependent variable could be a test score because it can be affected by various factors; how much one studies, how much sleep you get at night, intelligence etc. In short, independent variable causes a change in dependent variable and it is not possible that dependent variable could cause change in independent variable.

Literature Review

The literature review refers to the part of research that contains extensive reference to related research and theory in the field. It is in the literature reviews that connections are made between the source texts that you draw on and where you position yourself amongst these sources. When writing a literature review, a research has the opportunity to engage in a written dialogue with researchers in his/her area of interest while at the same time showing that he/she has engaged with, understood and responded to the relevant body of knowledge underpinning the selected research area.

The general purpose of a literature review is to analyse critically a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research studies and theoretical articles. It is for these reasons that the analysis is referred to a review of literature.

What to consider when writing intro for Literature Review

• You should define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern and thus provide an appropriate context for reviewing the literature.

• Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship; or a single problem or new perspective of immediate interest.

• Establish your point of view (reasons) for reviewing the literature; explain the criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing literature and the organization of the review (sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain literature is or is not included (scope).

What to consider when writing the body for Literature Review

• You should group research studies and other types of literature (reviews, theoretical articles, case studies, etc.) according to common denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, chronology, etc.

• Consider summarizing individual studies or articles with as much or as little detail as each merits according to its comparative importance in the literature, remembering that space (length) denotes significance.

• You should provide the reader with strong "umbrella" sentences at beginnings of paragraphs, "signposts" throughout, and brief "so what" summary sentences at intermediate points in the review to aid in understanding comparisons and analyses.

What to consider when writing the conclusion for Literature Review

• You should summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction.

• Consider evaluating the current "state of the art" for the body of knowledge reviewed, pointing out major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and findings, and areas or issues pertinent to future study.

• Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of the literature review and a larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific endeavor, or a profession.

Purpose of a Literature Review

A researcher should aim to show how related work in the field has shaped and influenced his or her research – this is the overall function of a literature review. Therefore, a researcher should aim to use the literature selectively and creatively to provide a motivation for his/her own work.

The literature review can be used for the following purposes:

1. to provide a historical context for your research

2. to give an overview of the current context in which a researcher‟s research is situated

3. to show relevant theories and concepts for a researcher‟s research

4. to provide definitions and relevant terminology for a researcher‟s research

5. to describe related research in the field and how researcher‟s work extends this or addresses a gap in previous work in the field

6. to provide supporting evidence for a practical problem which a researcher is addressing

When documenting research, the literature review can appear in different ways:

1. It may occur in a chapter entitled Literature Review. This chapter is likely to be divided into topic-related sub-sections.

2. The literature review may occur in a chapter or series of chapters with topic-related titles.

3. The literature review may be interwoven throughout the whole research (thesis, dissertation etc.). This is common in library-based research which focuses on a theoretical analysis of texts.

Types of Research and Classification of Research

Research Classification

Communication research can generally be grouped as follows:

• Classification by practice

• Classification by measurement

• Classification by data gathering method

• Classification by discipline

Classification by Practice

Research classification by practice can be divided into two:

• Academic research

• Applied research

a) Academic Research

This kind of research is conducted mostly by academicians (i.e. scholars in universities and other tertiary institutions). Academic research generally has a theoretical approach.

b) Applied Research

Applied research is one which is believed to have practical use or application. Most research studies funded by public and private organizations fall within this category. Multinational corporations, advertising agencies, public relations consultancy firms etc. require applied or practical research outcomes which they can use in their work.

Classification by Measurement

Research can also be classified by how it is measured; quantitative and qualitative research.

i) Quantitative Research

This is the type of research designed to yield numerical data. It requires that variables under consideration be measured or quantified. It is concerned with how often a variable is present and generally uses figures to communicate this amount. In other words, the quantitative approach involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and/or control the phenomena of interest. Data analysis in quantitative research is mainly statistical or deductive process. Quantitative research techniques or methods include experimentation, survey and content analysis.

ii) Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is designed primarily to yield non-quantitative or non-numerical data. It involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain insights into the phenomena of interest. Data analysis involves the coding of data and production of a verbal synthesis or inductive process. In other words, it does not depend on the measurement of variables or research elements. According to Wimmer and Dominick (2000), qualitative analysis relies mainly on the analysis of visual data (observations) and verbal data (words) that reflect everyday experience. Osuala (2005) adds that qualitative research is concerned with processes rather than consequences, with organic wholeness rather than independent variables and with meanings rather than behavioural statistics. In qualitative research, interest is directed towards contextbound conclusions that could potentially point the way to new policies and decisions rather than towards “scientific” generalizations. Qualitative research methods include:

a) in-depth interview,

b) focus group discussion (FGD), c) observational research, d) case study and,

e) ethnographic research.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Qualitative and quantitative research approaches have certain advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of qualitative research

1. Allows researchers to view behaviour in a natural setting without the artificiality that sometimes surrounds quantitative research.

2. Can increase a researcher‟s depth of understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This is especially true when the phenomenon has not been previously investigated.

3. Qualitative research is relatively easier to conduct.

4. Are flexible and allow the researcher to pursue new areas of interest. For instance, a questionnaire is unlikely to provide data about questions that were not asked but a researcher conducting in-depth interview might discover facets of a subject that were not considered before the study began.

Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

Despite the above advantages, qualitative research has some disadvantages.

1. Sample sizes are usually too small to allow the researcher to generalize the data beyond the sample selected from the particular study.

2. Reliability of the data can also be a problem since single observers are describing unique events.

3. Because a researcher doing qualitative research is most of the time closely involved with the respondents, it is possible for him to lose objectivity when collecting data. A researcher who becomes too close to the study may lose the necessary professional detachment (Wimmer & Dominick, 2000).

4. If qualitative research is not properly planned, the outcome may produce nothing of value. It is important therefore to add value by interpreting statistical data for any meaningful implication.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

1. The use of numeric data (figures) allows greater precision in reporting results.

2. It permits the use of powerful statistical tools thereby making its results more credible.

Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

1. The setting i.e. where the research is performed is somewhat artificial and it is more rigorous to conduct than qualitative research.

2. In survey research, respondents purposely deceive researchers by deliberately telling lies.

3. In experimentation, the respondents may just give the researcher the type of response he wants and this may affect the outcome of the research.

In summary, quantitative researchers argue that their data are „hard‟ „rigorous‟ „credible‟ and „scientific‟ while the qualitative proponents counter that their data are „sensitive‟ „nuanced‟

„detailed‟ and „contextual‟.

Triangulation

Some researchers advocate for a research type that combines both quantitative and qualitative methods also called triangulation. Critics of the distinction between quantitative and qualitative approaches say that it can lead to all sorts of confusion. Indeed, in some areas of social science research, the qualitative/quantitative distinction has led to protracted arguments with the proponents of each arguing the superiority of their kind of data over the other. For many social science researchers, this kind of polarized debate has become less productive as it obscures the fact that qualitative and quantitative data are intimately related. In this regard, it has been observed that quantitative data are based on qualitative judgments and all qualitative data can be described and manipulated numerically. Most researchers have since realized that both quantitative and qualitative techniques are important in understanding any phenomenon. They have therefore devised a technique that bridges the gap between quantitative and qualitative research. Wimmer and Dominick (2000) defined triangulation within the context of mass media research as “the use of both qualitative and quantitative methods to fully understand the nature of a research problem”.

Classification by Data Collection Method

This is possibly the major classification of research in mass communication. This is because no matter how research is classified, it is basically identified by its method of data collection. In this regard we have quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection. Examples of quantitative data gathering methods are; surveys, experiments and content analysis while qualitative data gathering methods are; interviews, focus group discussion (FGD) observational research, ethnographic research, historical research and case study.

Survey Research

This is conceivably the most popular technique of data collection among communication researchers. The survey research technique has been aptly defined by Wiseman and Aron (1970) as “a method for collecting and analyzing social data via highly structured and often very detailed interview or questionnaire in order to obtain information from large numbers of respondents presumed to be representative of a specific population”. As noted in the above definition, survey research method focuses on people, the vital facts of people; their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and behaviour. Survey is conducted to collect and analyse social, economic, psychological and other types of data; it is based on interviewing people (respondents) and asking questions. It must be representative enough of the research population being studied for it to be worthwhile.

Experimentation

The word “experimentation” is derived from the Latin word experiri which means to try. Though, according to Severin and Tankard (2001) experimental research is defined as “the classic method of dealing with the question of causality” which means the relationship between something that happened and the reason for it happening or cause and effect. It involves the control or manipulation of a variable (research element) by the experimenter and an observation or measurement of the result in an objective and systematic way. There are two basic techniques of obtaining data in experimental research– laboratory and field experimentation. Whether using laboratory or field experimentation, the purpose is to obtain verifiable and reliable data.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a special data gathering technique available to communication researchers. It is used to collect data from already existing or secondary sources. So instead of interviewing people or asking them to respond to questionnaires as in survey research or observing behaviour as in human experiment, the researcher using content analysis examines the communications that have been produced (e.g. newspapers, magazines, books, etc.) at times and places of his or her own choosing. The purposes concerned with characteristics of content which may form the basis for content analysis include the following:

• To describe trends in communication content

• To disclose international differences in communication content

• To audit communication content against objectives  To expose propaganda techniques

• To discover stylistic features.

Interviews

There is some controversy about interview as a research method. Some researchers tend to view it as a subset of the survey research method while others see it as a distinct qualitative research method. According to Berger (2000), interviews are one of the most widely used as fundamental qualitative research techniques. On the other hand, Wimmer and Dominick (2000) distinguish interview as a qualitative research technique from interview used in survey research by describing it as “intensive or in-depth interview”. As noted by Berger (2000) the simplest way to describe the interview technique is to say that it is a conversation between a researcher (someone who wishes to gain information about a subject) and an informant (someone who presumably has information of interest on the subject). The goal of interview as in other research techniques is to obtain data or information. According to Wimmer and Dominick (2000) intensive interviews are unique for the following reasons:

ü They generally use smaller samples

ü They provide detailed background about the reasons respondents give specific answers

ü Elaborate data concerning respondents‟ opinions, values, motivations etc. are obtained

ü Intensive interviews allow for lengthy observation of respondents nonverbal responses

ü They are usually very long. Unlike personal interviews used in survey research that may last only a few minutes, an intensive interview may last several hours and may take more than one session.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

This is an interview conducted with 6 – 12 people as a group simultaneously and a moderator who leads the discussion about a specific topic. Its identifying characteristic is that it is a controlled group discussion which can be used to gather preliminary data for a research project; to help develop questionnaire for a survey research, to understand the reason behind a phenomenon, to see how a group of people interpret a certain phenomenon or test preliminary ideas or plans. When properly conducted, it is a natural method for eliciting group opinion on specific issue in a social setting. It has an advantage over the individualistic respondent interviewing when genuine responses are expected. FGD serves as an influential forum whereby individuals within the group have their personal views moderated by the responses of other members of the group.

Observational Research

Observation can fairly be referred to as the classic method of scientific inquiry. It involves not the ability only to perceive events as they occur but also to nose for fine details that others may take for granted. Observational research is based on things seen. According to Seltiz et al (1976) the basic principle of an observational technique is that it is an attempt to summarise, systematize and simplify the representation of an event rather than provide an event exact representation of it. There are two types of observational research - participant and non-participant observation.

Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research and participant observation are similar in that the researcher in both cases is involved in the phenomenon being studied. However, ethnography in a general sense involves any study of a group of people for the purpose of describing their socio-cultural activities and patterns. As a qualitative research method, the researcher spends long period of time living with and observing other cultures in their natural setting collecting extensive narrative (non-numeric) data. Ethnographic researchers use a variety of data collection techniques including interviewing, diary keeping, analysis of existing documents, photography, videotaping, etc.

Historical Research

Historical research or historiography has been aptly described by Kerlinger (1973) as “the critical investigation of events, developments, and experiences of the past, the careful weighing of evidence of the validity of sources of information on the past, and the interpretation of the weighed evidence”. The historical investigator, like other investigators, collects data, evaluates the data for validity and interprets the data. The historical method differs from other scholarly activity only in its rather elusive subject matter – the past, which it attempts to place in proper perspective. This type of research is also limited by its seemingly elusive subject matter which poses difficulties in interpretation. Fred Omu‟s (1978) famous book, Press and Politics in India (1880 – 1937) is a classic example of historical research in communication studies. According to Phifer cited in Berger (2000) there are seven types of historical studies. They are as follows:

o Biographical studies, focusing on the lives of important persons. o Movement or idea studies, tracing the development of political, social, or economic ideas and movement.

o Regional studies, focusing on particular cities, states, nations and regions.

o Institutional studies, concentrating on specific organizations. o Case histories, focusing on social settings or a single event.

o Selected studies, identifying and paying close attention to a special element in some complex process.

o Editorial studies, dealing with the translating or processing of documents.

Case Study

Case study has been defined by Wimmer and Dominick (2000) as the qualitative research technique that uses as many data sources as possible to systematically investigate individuals, groups, organizations or events. Case studies are conducted when a researcher needs to understand or explain a phenomenon. Unlike a survey that examines one or a few characteristics of many subjects or units, a case study is used to examine many characteristics of a single subject (e.g. a communicator, newsroom, newspaper, tv station, etc). The case study usually tries to learn all about the area the investigator is interested in for the specific case over a period of time. Case study is frequently used in medicine, clinical psychology history, management science among other disciplines. The great psychologist, Sigmund Freud, is said to have written case studies of his patients. The major drawback of case studies is that they usually cannot be generalized to other similar situations. Most often the results are based on a single example.

Classification by Discipline

Another classification of research is by discipline. Some research studies are labeled according to subject matter. In this respect, we have medical research, clinical research, marketing research, advertising research, public relations research, operations research, legal research, population health research, psychological research, political research, biomedical research, etc.

Other Classifications

Other classifications of research not yet identified in this unit include the following:

Longitudinal Research

This involves the collection of data at different points in time. There are three variants of longitudinal research; a) trend study, b) cohort analysis and c) panel study. A trend study samples different groups of people at different times from the same population. Trend studies are common around presidential elections in the USA. Cohort analysis is a study of a specific population as it changes over time while in panel study the same sample of respondents is measured at different points in time.

Administrative Research

According to Severin and Tankard (2001) this refers to research in the service of media institutions.

Critical Research

This grew out of the Marxist approach to studying society but later shifted its emphasis from class conflict to the role of domination in society (Severin and Tankard 2001).

Ethno Methodological Research

According to Berger (2000) this is a qualitative sociological research that studies the everyday activities of people, seeing these activities as phenomena worth investigating in their own right. The focus is on how people make sense of the world, and on commonsense attitudes, as revealed in conversation and behaviour.

Primary Research

This involves firsthand observation and investigation by a researcher such as conducting a survey, carrying out a laboratory experiment or analyzing a literary or historical text.

Secondary Research

This is the examination of studies that other researchers have made of a subject. It is also known as Library research. According to Berger (2001) this kind of research in essence is a form of editing, in which quotations (and sometimes summaries, paraphrases, and syntheses of the material read) from this scholar and that scholar are collected to produce an essay or article that makes its argument. Examples of secondary research are books, and articles about political issues, historical events or scientific debates. The major difference between both is that while in primary research, we do the actual research, in secondary research, we use the research that others have done.

Exploratory Research

In this research, the researcher engages in close examination or scrutiny of something (issues, place or natural phenomenon) for the purpose of discovering unknown elements. It is conducted to establish the need for something. Usually it is conducted to establish whether new facts can be established about something and this, in turn can lead to further research.

THE MEANING OF RESEARCH AND THESCIENTIFIC METHOD

The Meaning of Research

The word research is derived from the French word, recherché, which is from the old French word, recerhier, which simply means “to investigate thoroughly”. In this case, it means the search for knowledge again and again. Basically, research is fact finding. It is enquiry that utilizes the scientific method to study a phenomenon, situation or society. Research is knowledge that can be explained or verified through some procedure. For one to engage in any research, the expected outcome of the research must be important otherwise there will be no need for the research.

Consequently, all research activities start from problems that require solutions. This may sometime originate from an idea, a puzzle or simply the wish to explore our knowledge about simple issues, phenomena, situations or societies. Theories arise from observation, often systematic, sometimes causal and occasionally accidental. However, to be scientific a theory must, at least in principle, be capable of being proved wrong. Research has been described as a step-by-step process that involves collecting and examining information. Another definition of research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others.

The New Oxford Dictionary defines research as “careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to discover or establish facts and principles”. The Webster’s Nineth New Collegiate Dictionary defines research as “investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or law”. According to Kerlinger (1973), scientific research is systematic, controlled and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. There are two points to note in Kerlinger’s definition:

(i) Systematic and controlled means that scientific investigation is so ordered that investigators (researchers) can have critical confidence in research outcomes. It also means that research observations are tightly discipline.

(ii) Scientific investigation is empirical. This means that if a scientist believes something is so, he must somehow put his belief to a test outside himself. In other words, subjective belief must be checked against objective reality.

Osuala (2005) defines research as “the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data”. He further adds that research is oriented towards the discovery of the relationship that exist among the phenomena of the world in which we live. Research is devoted to finding conditions under which a certain phenomenon occurs and the conditions under which it does not occur in what might appear to be similar circumstances. According to Ajala (1996), the research attitude presumes that first look and every later look may be prone to error so we must look again and again differently and thoroughly each time. Research allows us to accumulate knowledge and make improvements without discarding old wisdom in favour of new facts. Research minimizes the role of chance. A scholarly research is the product of a knowledge-gathering process through the use of academically accepted fact-finding methods and tools and the ultimate presentation of the empirical finding in a professional manner to the academic community. Research can be classified into two broad categories – (a) Quantitative and (b) Qualitative.

(a) Quantitative research includes:

v Experimental research

v Survey research

v Content analysis

(b) Qualitative research include:

v Observational research

v Focus Groups Discussion (FGD)

v Indepth interview

v Case studies

v Ethnography

From our discussion so far, we can state the following about research:

1. All research activity is planned and well thought out. It is not a spontaneous activity or thing of the moment. It requires some investment of time and brainstorming to plan and design.

2. A research activity is purposeful and is aimed at achieving well defined and specific objectives.

3. A research activity is ordered, systematic and follows well known and clearly laid down procedure. Adhering to a systematic procedure ensures that the research activity can be rejected or verified. We do research to improve our knowledge and understanding of the world live in. Most times, research involves finding out something new.

Researchers are the people who carry out research. The importance of research lies in the fact that it is the most important tool for advancing knowledge, for promoting progress and for enabling man to relate more effectively to his environment, to accomplish his purpose and resolve his conflicts. An objective tool with which to search for answers to man‟s numerous problems. Research helps in the decision making process as it provides the decision maker with information to objectively evaluate problems.

Relationship between Theory and Research

Communication theory and research are intimately related and completely interdependent. For you to understand the relationship, let us restate our earlier definition of theory as a tentative explanation invented to assist in understanding some small or large part of the reality around us.

First of all define theory as we have done for research. Another way of looking at theory is a set of interrelated propositions or generalizations that serve to organize selected aspects of the world in a systematic way. Essentially, theory performs the following role in research:

v It serves as a critical guide to research.

v It sets problems for research

v It identifies new subjects for research v It directs research enquiry.

Research on the other hand performs the following roles in theory:

Ø Research findings suggest new problems for theory

Ø It invites new theoretical formulations

Ø It leads to the final retirement of theories themselves.

What then is the link between theory and research?

Theory and research activity are intricately interwoven. Theory and research are part of a constant cycle. A theory inspires research, which in turn can be used to verify or disprove it, and the findings of research are used to confirm, reject or modify the theory or even provide the basis for new theories. Thus, while theory guides research, research in turn, provides a test for theory. Because this relationship is so important, the most important step in social science research (of which communication research is a part) is that of linking the research to a theoretical problem. Unless the research is directly tied to a problem in theory, it is of little value or use. Ultimately the accumulation of greater knowledge is the final outcome of both theory and research.

Nature and Scope of Media Research

Now that you have an idea of what research is all about, let us take look at the nature and scope of media research. Media research is the application of scientific method to the study of the functioning of the mass media i.e. radio, TV, newspapers, magazine, etc.). One thing with media research is that it is intrusively interwoven with other disciplines. This is because the media are linked with other phenomena of life. Despite the growing complexity of media research, some areas of attention can still be clearly delineated. This leads us to the next stage of this unit - concerns of media research.

3.3 Concerns of Media Research

According to Barzum & Graff (1970) the concerns of media research include the followings:

ü Media messages and their origins.

ü Functions and purposes of media message.

ü Media channels, languages and codes.

ü Media content, references and information types.

ü Media audiences.

ü Effects of media messages, intended and unintended.

ü Media noise and feedback

ü Media technologies

ü Media regulation

ü Media ownership and control ü Media management etc.

Recent conceptions of media research, however, have now broadened the scope of the field to include, for instance, perceptions of the media as instruments of power that some nations use to exploit, oppress or dominate others. This notion of media is concerned with issues such as the implications of the persistent negative portrayals of certain nations or how because of the media technology, some nations wield unfair advantages in trade, cultural and military affairs. It is also from this notion of media research that has arisen the concept of media imperialism which describes the process by which modern communication media have operated to create, maintain and expand systems of domination and dependence on a world scale. Media researches carried out in the 80s which focused on the cultural implications for developing countries of the deluge of western cultural materials into these countries via the western media expressed in the form of a demand for New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) provide a very good example.

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process of deliberate and controlled observation with the distinctive criterion of objectivity. It emphasizes quantification, logical exposition, controlled empirical testing, replicability of findings, and intersubjectivity. It, therefore, formally rejects the influence of authority precedent, degree of current acceptance, and other such influence internal selective factors might have (Cohen & Nigel, 1934). Consequently, the scientific method is “the most assured technique man has devised for controlling the flux of things and establishing stable beliefs”. The method does not seek to impose the desires and hopes of man upon the flux of things in a capricious manner. It aims to discover what the facts truly are, and the use of the method must be guided by the discovered facts. In the study of the media, like other disciplines, what forms the core of the scientific method is the process of inquiry. Inquiry is the systematic study of experience that leads to understanding and knowledge. People engage in inquiry when they attempt to find out something in an orderly way. Media scholars share a general approach to inquiry that involves three stages, and follows:

ü The guiding stage of all inquiry is asking questions.

ü The second stage of inquiry is observation.

ü The third stage of inquiry is constructing answers (or explanations) which we call theories (Cohen& Nigel, 1934).

Steps of the Scientific Method/Research Process

It is worthwhile to reflect on the observation by some scholars that “at the moment the terms, scientific method and research are used interchangeably.” Like any process, the research process is a series of activities that are moving ahead over time toward a purpose. An analysis of these activities shows that they derive essentially from the steps of the scientific method. The steps of the scientific method vary from author to author, however, we may synthesize the various formulations of the research process to produce, for our purposes, the following eight steps:

1. Selection of the problem.

2. Formulation of the problem.

3. Review of the literature.

4. Design of the study

5. Collection of the data

6. Analysis of the data

7. Interpretation and qualification

8. Writing and publication of the research report.

1. Selection of the Problem

This is the first concrete step in the research process. Here, there is need to state the research problem in clear, simple, concise and complete way.

2. Formulation of the Problem

Formulation of the problem entails statements that serve to elaborate upon the information implied in the problem selection. The problem should be formulated simply, clearly and completely.

3. Review of Literature

Having selected the problem and formulated it, the next step is to bring past works done in the area to bear. In doing so there is need for you to be clear, simple and concise.

4. Design of the Study

Here, the methods that will be used in eliciting knowledge of the research problem are stated the study design is more or less like the blueprint that will be used for inquiry into the research problem. It has to state the type of research method that will be used; content analysis, survey, experimental etc. 5. Collection of Data

The research method will then be used to collect the data. At this stage, depending on the nature of the research the information needed to answer the research questions are collected.

6. Analysis of Data

Data itself cannot answer the research questions unless it is analysed. At this stage the research data is analysed to generate evidence.

7. Interpretation and Qualification

After the data have been analysed they have to be explained. Here the data is explained in simple terms denid of statistical or qualitative statements that may be too complex for understanding.

8. Writing and Publication of the Research Report

At this stage what you have found is put together and communicated to the larger community. The research task is not completed until its findings are reported and the report communicated.

The activities involved in the research process are many but we have summarized them in the eight steps outlined above. Everything we do in research falls within the eight steps. Remember, generally, what is true of the research process is equally true of the media research process.

MENING AND TYPES OF SAMPLING

The Meaning of Sampling

A sample is a group of items taken from the population for examination. This means that a sample should represent the population. A sample is simply a small part or quantity, which has been selected to represent the whole population or universe. As it is obvious even to the rookie researcher, it is most often difficult to study an entire population especially when that population is very large. For example, it is difficult to study the total population, of a typical Indian university, village, clan, town or city. While it may be difficult or even easy for one to do this in some kinds of studies or populations, science has offered us a means of studying large populations without recourse to studying them individually. A scientifically selected sample is normally regarded as a good representation of the population. According to Sobowale (1983), once the first element of a sample is picked through a table of random numbers all other elements of that sample become known. A sample can either be “probability or non-probability based. Probability Sampling is one in which every element, unit or portion has a known probability of being members in the sample. Examples are:

i Random Sampling ii Systematic Sampling iii Stratified Sampling iv Clustered Sampling

Reasons for Sampling

In all we have said so far we have alluded to some reasons why we sample. Whether a population is finite (that is determinable) or infinite (indeterminable or countless), the process of drawing a sample from it can be difficult, expensive and time consuming. If it can be so for the sampling process how much more for studying the whole population. So we decide on sampling for various reasons namely,

(1) There are similarities among the elements that make up a population we wish to study. For this reason a study of a few of the elements within the population can give us sufficient knowledge of what obtains in the entire population that enables us to generalize after observing an adequate sample , for the rest of the population.

(2) In most studies, it is practically impossible to carry out a complete and comprehensive study of the population because of the nature and pattern of distribution or dispersion of the elements of the population. In this circumstance, the only practical way to estimate the population characteristics is to draw a sample. For an individual it is near impossible for him/her to study the whole population of say Akwa Ibom State. Within the time frame and resources available to him/her this might seem a mission impossible.

(3) Arising from the above, because sampling enables us to deal with a part of the population, in an era of unavailable or limited resource; it is cheaper and reasonable to study a sample rather than an entire population.

(4) With a sample we are more thorough and more able to provide thorough supervision than if we had to study the entire population.

(5) It also enables us to obtain quicker result in our study than if we had had to cover the whole population.

(6) Interestingly sampling provides greater accuracy because personnel of higher quality can be recruited and given intensive training for the study than when working with the whole population. Overall, sampling makes possible the conduct of otherwise impossible studies by selecting representative units from the population, so that the result obtained can be used to draw inference on the entire population.

Sampling Techniques

A sampling technique simply means the method of sampling. The sample for a study could be obtained either by a systematic or a purposive sampling technique. In the systematic sampling technique, the researcher systematically selects his/her sample, using a table of random numbers . This table can be found on the appendix of any social research or statistical text book. Of course, to achieve this, a good sampling frame must be used with which to work out the sample interval. It is the sample interval that is used alongside with the table of random numbers. The purposive technique is adopted when you require a particular characteristic from a sample e.g.

particular sex, age, socio-economic group, ethnic profession etc.

Sampling Frame

A sampling frame is the “list of elements from which a probability sample is selected”. (Babbie,

1973). It is the real list of the units to be sampled from which the sample or some stage of the sample is selected. There is need for the appropriate selection of samples so as to get the appropriate information required for describing the population from which the sample has to be drawn. A sampling frame could be the list of schools in a Local Education Authority, List of students in a class, list of houses on a street, list of phone numbers on telephone directory etc. from which a researcher wants to draw the sample for research. A sample selected without an adequate sampling frame is not likely to be a true representative sample of the population of interest.

Types of Sampling

The researcher has many sampling methods to choose from. The researcher‟s choice of sampling method largely depends on the nature of the study and the purpose of the research. As we have already noted, in many descriptive studies, researchers seek to make some categorical or general statement about a defined population (people, objects like newspapers, magazines, television or radio). Since he or she cannot study all in the population in order to provide an accurate and dependable statement on the general issues of the investigation they have to resort to the use of a selected sample. This sample has to be selected in such a manner that the research outcome would throw up such results as may have been obtained if the whole population were to be studied. Samples are largely divided into two broad groups, namely, probability and nonprobability. Probability sampling methods include the following:

ü Random sampling

ü Systematic sampling

ü Stratified sampling

ü Cluster or Area sampling

The non-probability sampling methods are:

v Convenience/Accidental/Available sampling

v Quota sampling

v Purposive sampling (or Judgment sampling)

Multi-stage sampling, panel and double sampling also are research procedures which make use of probability and non-probability sampling technique. These two groups are also referred to as probability and purposive, random and non-random or strategic and non-strategic samples.

Probability Sampling

Earlier we had listed the following probability sampling techniques as comprising:

ü Random sampling

ü Systematic sampling ü Stratified sampling ü Cluster sampling.

Random sampling sometimes referred to as simple random sampling may not seem simple on the surface but it is the most fundamental method of probability sampling. It uses the principle of randomization, which guarantees that every subject or object in the population has an equal opportunity of being selected. This randomization can be achieved through writing the names or numbers of the subjects and shuffling them and each time the card shows, the choice is made. It can also be achieved through the use of a table of random numbers. Thus probability sampling insures against misleading result and guarantees that enough cases are included in the sample to give a high confidence level which points to the representativeness of the sample.

Simple Random Sample

A simple random sample is selected through a process that guarantees each element in the population the chance to be selected. It also makes the selection of every possible combination of the desired number of cases possible. The purpose of random sampling is to reduce sampling errors or margin of errors (Babbie, 1973). The procedure of selecting a random sample is not to be confused with that of selecting from a list or file of cases by taking every nth case that is, selecting from a given interval known as a sampling interval. Here the researcher may randomly choose both the starting point and the sampling interval. It is important to note that when we draw a sample, we can never be sure that it is representative of the population. We can only hope that the elements it contains will approximate those present in the population. We also rely on the assumption that the prevailing characteristics in the population are the same most frequently distributed in the population and those most likely to be found in the random sample. Thus a sample drawn at random is most likely to be unbiased.

Systematic Sampling

This procedure is similar in some ways to the simple random sampling. For example, in order to obtain a sample of 20 from say, a population of 100 (a sampling rate of 1/5th) the researcher needs to randomly select a starting point and a sampling interval. Systematic samples are frequently used in media research. This procedure is more economical in terms of time and resources when compared to the simple random sampling. It is widely used in selecting subjects from a list such as telephone directories, yellow pages and other important publications. The accuracy of this procedure depends to a large extent on the adequacy of the sampling frame, or the complete list of members in the population. Telephone directories or postal address directories are inadequate because not all telephone lines and addresses are listed. The researcher should however ensure that he or she can have a comprehensive list that includes all in the population and where such a list is unavailable, it would not be advisable to use the systematic sampling technique. Again, let us suppose you want to select 10 subjects from a population of 100, you must follow the following steps if you have a serial list of the population:

Step 1. Number the subjects serially up to 100

Step 2. Divide 100 by 10 ie N/n=100/10=10

Step 3. Randomly select your starting point say 10 on the list

Step 4 Then select every 10th subject after the first

Your selected subject will include 10, 20, 30, 40 etc till you have your sample of 10. The systematic sampling procedure does not give all possible combinations of cases the same opportunity of being selected. It is only combinations of elements of ten cases apart on the list that have any chance of being selected for the sample. The result may be quite deceptive if all the cases are arranged in some cyclical order.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling are:

1. Selection of sample is easy.

2. Selection can be more accurate than in a simple random sample.

3. The procedure is generally inexpensive.

Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling are:

1. A complete list of population must be obtained.

2. Periodicity, that is the arrangement or, order of the items in the population list, may bias the selection process. In a telephone directory, the alphabetical listing does not allow each person or household an equal chance of being selected. This problem can partly be overcome by drawing the names randomly in a box after cutting them out from the list.

Stratified Sampling

This is the approach employed to get adequate representation of a subsample as a guarantee that a specific subsample of the population is adequately represented. In a survey of human behaviour or attitude towards a specific mass medium, any variable may be included from age, gender, religion, income level, educational qualification or even individuals who use the mass medium. This procedure ensures that the sample is drawn from a homogeneous subject of the population. This homogeneity helps researchers to reduce sampling error. In general, stratification contributes to the efficiency of sampling if it succeeds in establishing classes that are internally comparatively homogeneous with respect to the characteristics being investigated. Disproportionate stratified sampling, on the other hand, is used to oversample or over-represent a particular stratum because of the critical importance attached to that stratum.

Cluster Sampling

Another important sampling procedure is to select the sample in groups or categories. This procedure is employed when the researcher recognizes that the population he or she is studying is distributed in clusters or pockets of settlement and he or she wants to use the clusters as a basis for proportional selection of subjects from each cluster to represent its share of the entire population. This procedure is used mainly in geographically distributed population. Cluster sampling creates two types of errors namely error in defining the initial clusters and errors in selecting from the clusters. Like stratified sampling, cluster sampling makes use of random sampling to select the subject from each cluster. Asika(1991) identifies the four steps involved in cluster sampling as follows:

Step 1. Identify population to be sampled

Step 2. Identify the salient characteristics that you think would enhance representativeness

Step 3. Locate the areas where subjects with the characteristics cluster and know their respective size

Step 4. Use random selection procedure to select your sample subject from each cluster and make sure that the number of units selected from each cluster share of the total population.

Thus large scale surveys make use of the methods of cluster sampling. Cluster may be based on geographic variables such as state, local government, ward, or ethnicity. It is seen as the successive random sampling of units, or sets and subsets.

Non-Probability Sampling

In non- probability sampling, there is no way of estimating the probability that each element has of being included in the sample, and no assurance that every element has some chance of being included. Thus if there is no assurance that every element has equal chance of being selected, this uncertainty implies that there can be no assurance as to the precise nature of the population that is being sampled. The major advantages of non-probability sampling are that it is convenient and economical which are advantages that may outweigh the risk involved in not using probability sampling. The principal types of non-probability sampling are; accidental, quota and purposive.

Accidental/Available/Convenience Sample

Under this procedure, the researcher simply uses a collection of readily accessible subjects i.e., one simply takes the cases that are handy and continues until the sample reaches a designated size. A television station may wish to know how the people (viewers) feel about a given issue and goes ahead to interview conveniently available shoppers, students, and other passers-by. When one uses available sample, one can only hope that one is not being too grossly misled. Another instance may be a broadcast station trying to know the views of the people on the issue of the disqualification of a prominent presidential candidate by the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC). This could take the form of a street forum conducted by the broadcast station. The risk in this type of accidental sampling is that one may be located in a suburb populated by persons sympathetic to the candidate or vice versa. As a result of its inherent weakness, available samples have been the subject of heated debate in many research fields. Critics argue that whatever the result it may generate, it lacks external validity.

Quota Sampling

This procedure is sometimes misleadingly referred to as `representative` sampling. It guarantees the inclusion in the sample of diverse elements of the population and also ensures that the diverse elements are taken note of in the proportions in which they occur in the population. In this procedure, knowledge of the strata of the population such as sex, ethnic group, age group, income or socioeconomic group, etc is used to select the sample that is the representative, `typical` of the actual population. Its name is derived from the practice of assigning quotas of the diverse elements or proportions of kinds of subjects to interviewers and is commonly used in opinion surveys of preferences and attitudes. Although quota sampling is a non-probability procedure, its application produces a resemblance of representativeness. Quota sampling is to nonprobability sampling what stratified sampling is to probability sampling because both procedures make available select sample subjects to conform to some control measures dictated by some inherent characteristics of the population being investigated.

Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling

Sometimes the researcher may decide to choose his or her sample based on what he considers typical cases which are most likely to provide him or her with the data he wants. This decision is considered judgmental. The researcher here selects his or her sample on the basis of specific characteristics or qualities and excludes those that are outside these objectives and clearly defined criteria. Purposive sampling is often used in advertising studies and as a procedure for forecasting in national election. This sample is chosen with the full knowledge that it is not representative of the general population. The basic assumption under which purposive sampling is conducted is that with good judgment and an appropriate strategy the researcher can select cases to be included in the sample and thus arrive at samples that meet one‟s needs. However, without an objective basis for arriving at one‟s judgment, this procedure is not dependable. Purposive suggests that it is deliberate and the researcher believes that the sample is typical and representative of a particular group. If the researcher‟s judgment is faulty then the basis of his or her research falls flat.

Other Sampling Techniques

Multistage Sampling

In several nationwide surveys, researchers use a form of cluster sampling in which individual households or persons are selected. This procedure is used by the researcher to address problems which other sampling procedures cannot address. S/he therefore resorts to sampling in stages. For example, the researcher may wish to study Indian media coverage of the 2003 electoral campaigns or s/he may choose to focus on the print media. The researcher further limits these to the newspaper press. Realizing that Indian newspaper content varies according to regions, the researcher may choose to zone the publications into Lagos/West, Northern and Eastern zones. This is stratification at work. After this, the researcher randomly selects these newspapers from each zone. This constitutes another stage which is the employment of random sampling. And from each of the three newspapers in each zone he selects a total of 90 editions over a period of three months using any of the sampling methods which could finally yield what, in content analysis, is referred to as the constructed month. This sampling in many stages is multistage sampling. It requires the researcher to choose his samples in stages until he/she gets the required sample.

Double Sampling

This is a modified version of multistage sampling procedure, which aims at a high level of precision through sampling intensity. This procedure is sometimes employed by researchers who have time and money at their disposal.

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING ERROR:

Determining the Sample Size

Determining the sample size adequate for a given population is one of the most critical and sometimes controversial things to do in sampling. The question is often asked. How large must a sample be to give the research result the desired confidence level?. While scholars have suggested various sample sizes and formulae for determining them, it is not possible to have a sample sizes that is adequate for all research situations. A rough and ready rule for beginnerresearchers is: Use as large a sample as possible. Clearly small samples cannot be reliable for serious research purposes. But again, samples that are too large can be dangerous. Wimmer and Dominick (2000) have outlined factors which may determine the selection of a sample size. ü Type of project

ü Purpose of project

ü Complexity of project

ü Amount of error that may be tolerated

ü Time constraint

ü Financial resources available or how much a funding agency is prepared to spend ü Previous research in the area

Sample Size

A research that is designed to gather preliminary data (as in a pilot study) does not need a large sample . A study, on the other hand, that is required to provide huge amounts of information must necessarily be large to accommodate a wide variety of viewpoints from the selected sample. Again, Wimmer and Dominick (2000) have outlined certain basic principles which must guide the researcher in determining an acceptable sample size. They however warn that the bases of their propositions are neither mathematical nor statistical theory:

v A primary consideration in determining a sample size is the research method. Focus group discussions use samples of 6-12 people, but the results are not intended to be generalized to the population from which the respondents are selected except commonly used for presetting measuring instruments and pilot studies.

v Researchers often use samples of 50,75 or 100 subjects per group (such as adult 18-42 years old). The basic figure is used to `back in` to a total sample size.

v Cost and time consideration always control sample size. Although researchers may wish to use a sample of 1000 for a survey, the economics of such a sample are usually prohibitive. If a smaller sample is forced on a researcher by some one else or circumstance beyond him or her, the result must be interpreted accordingly with caution.

v Multivariate studies always require larger samples than do univariate studies because they involve analyzing multiple response data. One guideline recommended for multivariate studies is as follows: 50 = very poor; 100 = poor; 200 = fair; 300 = good; 500 = very good; 1000 = excellent. (Comrey & Lee, 1992). Other researchers suggest using a sample of 100 plus 1 subject for each dependent variable in the analysis.

v For panel studies, central location testing, focus groups, and other prerecruit projects, researchers should always select a larger sample than is actually required. The larger sample compensates for those subjects who drop out of research studies for one reason or another, and allowances must be made for this in planning the sample selection. Researchers can expect 10% - 25% dropout within the sample in panel studies.

v Information about sample size is available in published research. Consulting the works of other researchers provide a starting point. If a survey is planned and similar research indicates that a representative sample of 400 has been used regularly with reliable results, then a sample larger than 400 may be unnecessary.

v Generally speaking, the larger the sample the better it is for the researcher and the readers or other future researchers. A large unrepresentative sample (Law of Large Numbers) is as meaningless as a small unrepresentative sample, so researchers should not consider number alone. Quality is always more important in sample selection than mere size.

v Several sample size calculators are available on the Internet.

Sampling Error

A sample, as we already know, is a proportion of a group or population which is chosen and tested in order to obtain information about the group or population. Since researchers deal with samples, there must be some way they compare the result of what was found in the sample to what exists in the larger population. Such a comparison offers the researcher the opportunity to determine the accuracy of the data and involves the computation of error. There is no doubt that, in the field of research, errors are common place from sampling error, measurement error to random error (this latter error is often referred to as unknown or uncontrollable error). What we know as sampling error is also referred to as standard error. This is one of the most frequent and useful strategies used to compare means of samples. Now the difficulty that arises is: Is the difference of 10 units a `real` difference, a statistically significant difference? Or is it a difference that could have arisen anyway – more than 5 times in 100, or some other amount - when no difference actually exists? It should be clear by now that sampling error occurs when measurement taken from a sample does not correspond to what exist in the population. Different ratings of a programme by a select group (sample) in a population usually would create sampling error. Naturally respondents‟ differences exist. In computing the rate of sampling error, researchers are able to assess the risk involved in accepting research findings as `real`. Sampling error can be computed with probability sampling but not with a non-probability sample because every member of the sample of the latter does not have equal opportunity of being selected. The central limit theorem is used as a basis for computing sampling error in research. And this theorem states that the sum of a large number of independent and identically distributed random variables (or sampling distributions) has an approximate normal distribution. Error can occur by chance or through some fault of the researcher or flaw in the procedure. The sampling error provides an indication of the degree of accuracy of the research. Standard error is directly related to the sample size and the error improves as the sample size is increased.