ADJM 0108: GROUP DYNAMICS

INTRODUCTION TO GROUP DYNAMICS

The criteria for defining a group include:-

v  Formal social structure

v  Presence of face to face interaction

v  A must have shared common goal

v  Should be interdependent

v  Must have a common fate

v  There should be self-definition as group members (individual members being recognized by other members of a group)

DEFINITION OF A GROUP

WAHLSTROM (1992); A group is a composition of a number of people who come together or are brought together voluntarily and who share a common goal, task or purpose.

Payne (2001);             A group is a number of people who participate in a face to face interaction with each other… who have group norms and values that determines an individual’s behavior… who share common interests or goals... And who see themselves as a group.

Steinberg (2007);        A group is a collection of individuals who see themselves as belonging to the same group, who interact verbally and non-verbally to occupy certain roles with respect to one another and who co-operate to accomplish a definite goal.

There are certain elements in the definition of a group that stand out. These are:

v  Number of people

v  View themselves as a group

v  Face to face interaction with each other

v  Shared common interests and goals

v  Group norms

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS

Different groups have different characteristics, serve different purposes, and can lead to positive, neutral, or negative experiences. While our interpersonal relationships primarily focus on relationship building, small groups usually focus on some sort of task completion or goal accomplishment. The following are some of the characteristics of a small group:

1. Optimum number of members

The minimum number for a group is three with an unclear maximum number. If a group is too large however, it will be difficult to manage or control. And if it is too small, there will be limited ideas. The most productive size for a small group is of about 5-7 people; large enough to supply ideas/ information but small enough to give each member an opportunity to participate. An odd number is the best for a group since it comes in handy in case there is an issue cat can only be managed or resolved through voting.

2. Good working environment

A good working environment is one that promotes interactions among its members. A sitting that is too formal or too informal will inhibit discussion. Also for a group that is too informal some groups of about 2-3 people will form within the group hence there won’t be full participation. An ideal sitting arrangement is a circular or square sitting arrangement since in such everyone can see each other. This enables establishment of a good climate where all members have an equal opportunity to participate.

Group climate refers to the atmosphere created in a group and is largely dependent on the communication style of the group members. The most effective groups are those in which the group climate has the following ingredients: Supportiveness, Trust among members, Openness and honesty, High performance goals and Participation in decision making (actual involvement).

Types of group climate include:

a)      Support climate- here people trust each other and communicate openly due to presence of a positive communication behavior.

b)      Defensive climate- is a communication context in which trust and open communication are unlikely because of negative communication. When a person perceives a threat to themselves this type of climate crops up.

 

3. Cohesiveness and commitment

Commitment is the willingness of group members to work together to complete a certain task. Cohesiveness on the other hand means pulling together or uniting to accomplish a task. A successful group is one where all members work together to accomplish a certain task (help one another if need be). A homogeneous group in most instances is more cohesive than a heterogeneous group. This is because homogeneous groups have a great deal in common and perceive similar interests and needs whereas the edge, purpose and interest differ in heterogeneous groups.

4. Group norms

Norms are explicit (written down/ clearly established) or implicit (understood) rules of behavior established to enable a group operate effectively and efficiently. Groups will develop behaviors which all members are expected to conform to. Some are formalized others are informal depending on the profession or group. Norms keep varying from group to group and once they are set they can become the guiding factor in a group.

5. Filing role requirement

Groups serve to fill 3 major roles which are:

a)      Task role(s) - This role reflects work that a group must accomplish. People who fulfill task roles do; initiate ideas, seek and provide information, define problems, record key group decision as well as clarify and summarize suggestions and proposals.

b)      Maintenance role(s) – This role reflects group’s behavior that keeps the group working smoothly. People who perform this role fulfill emotional needs of the group; they support and encourage others through praise and agreements, relieve tension by helping reconcile group members who have differences. They control conflicts and act as gate keepers by ensuring lines of communication are open and that everyone has a chance to participate. Without such people interpersonal tension may interfere with the group.

c)      Self-centered roe(s) – This role accomplishes egocentric/ self-serving functions. Individuals who play this role are aggressive, attention seekers who promote personal interests or do not contribute anything at all to the group. They may also dominate discussions, verbally attacking others, clown around, block suggestions and engage in point picking i.e. Criticize everything the group attempts.

 

TYPES OF GROUPS

1.      Tasks groups

These groups exist for purposes of accomplishing certain tasks i.e. study, research and problem solving groups (e.g. military forces). These groups do not necessarily share a common goal. They have own norms. They are also formal and membership is determined by others. Communication varies i.e. some may lack intimate communication.

2.      Support groups

Are referential in nature i.e. Serve as a referential point on queries of beliefs and identification e.g. marry-go-round, prayer groups, FIDA KNY.

3. Social groups

While all groups are both social and task by nature some are predominantly social in their orientation e.g. families and social clans. These groups promote interpersonal connections and are more focused on quality interactions since provide for safety and solidarity needs and help us develop self-esteem. We need to have a sense of personal power. Groups differ from collection of people, as members share a common focus and good percent has to fight to maintain the group.

4.      Contrived/Emergent Group

Are formed for specific purposes e.g. company, identity…etc. Example of these groups: best friends, funeral or wedding committees.

5.      Work Groups

The main function of this group is to complete a particular task. This is done through sharing of information and collective performance of duties. The task dimension is emphasized. (Pulling expertise together to accomplish a task)

These types of groups mostly have a neutral group synergy but can at times have a negative one. In this type of group every member is accountable for their duties.

Types of Work Groups

a)      Additive-All group members perform the same activity and pool their results at the end. (Demo)

b)      Conjunctive-Group members perform different but related tasks that allow for compilation of a goal. (Football match)

c)      Disjunctive -Members meet to determine the best alternative for a problem or issue. (mediation committee formed after post-election chaos)

d)      Judgment -Group members must choose one correct answer from all alternatives .e.g.

e)      Decision making -Members must choose the best alternative from all alternative.

 

ADVANTAGES AND DISAVDANTAGES OF GROUPS

Advantages of Large Groups

• More ideas can be generated.
• Greater diversity of ideas and opinions.
• More people available to get a task completed.
• It's a great networking and socializing opportunity.
• Great opportunity for sharing skills and knowledge.
• Learners get to know each other better.
• 'Soft' skills such as negotiation, leadership, conflict resolution etc. can be demonstrated.
• Less confident learners may feel more 'safe' in a large group.
• Decisions made are collaborative - builds ownership of issues and solutions.
• Large groups can be fun to work with, and to be part of.

Disadvantages of Large Groups

• Greater chance of conflict between individual learners.
• Decision-making takes more time.
• Segregation of individuals can occur.
• Less extroverted individuals can feel intimidated and be hesitant to contribute.
• The trainer may need to intervene and provide leadership.
• It's easier for individuals to avoid doing any work and let others do it all.
• Reaching agreement can be difficult.
• Things can get rowdy and out of hand.
• Risk of an individual taking on a 'boss' role and being a dictator.

 

Advantages of Small Groups

·         Each individual learner has more chance to speak up.

·         It's more likely that each learner gets an equal share of participation.

• shared decision making- Decision making takes less time
• They're not as difficult to facilitate
• Shared resources- Group members also help expand our social networks, which provide access to more resources. A local community-theater group may be able to put on a production with a limited budget by drawing on these connections to get set-building supplies, props, costumes, actors, and publicity in ways that an individual could not.
• Synergy- Refers to the potential for gains in performance or heightened quality of interactions when complementary members or member characteristics are added to existing ones. James R. Larson Jr., In Search of Synergy in Small Group Performance (New York: Psychology Press, 2010). The increased knowledge, diverse perspectives, and access to resources that groups possess relates to this advantage of small groups.
• Exposure to diversity which broaden our perspectives- small groups  expand our social networks, increasing possibility of  interaction with people with different cultural identities, diversity of experience and opinion than ourselves. This diversity of experience and opinion within a group can lead to broadened perspectives as alternative ideas are presented and opinions are challenged and defended.

 

Disadvantages of Small Groups

• A small group of learners have less skills and knowledge to share.
• Conflict can be devastating without the buffer of a large group to 'hide' behind.
• Each person in the small group has to work hard to achieve objectives.
• Small groups tend to be more intimate, and some people are uncomfortable with that.

·         Small groups that add too many members increase the potential for group members to feel overwhelmed or disconnected.

• In some cases, one person can be just as or more effective than a group of people. When a situation needs a highly specialized skill or knowledge, one very knowledgeable person is probably a better fit for the task than a group of less knowledgeable people.
• Group interaction also has a tendency to slow down the decision-making process. When group interaction does occur under time constraints, having one “point person” or leader who coordinates action and gives final approval or disapproval on ideas or suggestions for actions is best.

·         Group communication also presents interpersonal challenges. A common problem is coordinating and planning group meetings due to busy and conflicting schedules. Some people also have difficulty with self-centeredness and self-sacrifice that some groups require.

• Group members may take advantage of the anonymity of a group and engage in social loafing i.e. they contribute less to the group than other members or than they would if working alone. This is according to Steven J. Karau and Kipling D. Williams (1993). Social loafers expect that no one will notice their behaviors or those others will pick up their slack. It is this potential for social loafing that makes many students and professionals dread group work, especially those who have a tendency to cover for other group members to prevent the social loafer from diminishing the group’s productivity or output.

 

GROUP FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

SMALL GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Bruce W. Tuckman and Mary Ann C. Jensen, “Stages of Small-Group Development Revisited,” Group and Organizational Studies 2, no. 4 (1977): 419–27.

Small groups are building blocks of our society. They exist for these FIVE reasons:

1.      Groups are everywhere

2.      To meet the needs of the people that can’t be  realized as individuals

3.      To enable people participate in a democratic process

4.      To enable people know and/or have skills of how groups function and how to operate them effectively.

5.      To train people so as to work effectively (in this way it accommodates them).

 

Reasons people join groups:

1. Security- Groups reduce the feeling of insecurity that makes one feel helpless and alone hence makes one feel stronger and safer.
2. Status quo- Being part of an important or popular group can help one build their identity and self-concepts.
3. Self-esteem- Groups gives group members the feeling of self-worth, increasing their confidence.
4. Affiliation- fulfills social needs, enjoys regular interaction; can be primary source for fulfilling need for affiliation.
5. Group Synergy-Groups are capable of achieving higher tasks or quality work than an individual working alone. There is power in numbers.
6. Goal achievement- some tasks requires more than one person; need to pool talents knowledge or power to complete the job. In such instances management may rely on the use of a formal group.

 

 

STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT (BRUCE TUCKMAN 1965)

The five stages of group development include forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

1.                  Forming

It is the first stage of group development. It is here where group identity is formed. Given that interpersonal bonds are likely not yet formed and people are unfamiliar with the purpose of the group or task at hand, there are high levels of uncertainty. There is usually also tension build up, anxiety and dependence on the group leader by the members as the get to determine and learn the goals, tasks, norms and laws governing the group. Group members begin to reduce uncertainty associated with new relationships and/or new tasks through initial interactions that lay the foundation for later group dynamics. Hence group cohesion also starts to form during this stage. Group cohesion- Refers to the commitment of members to the purpose of the group and the degree of attraction among individuals within the group. Owen Hargie, Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice, 5th ed. (London: Routledge, 2011), 445.

-Although there may not be as much uncertainty when one or two new people join a group as there is when a group first forms, groups spend some time in the forming stage every time group membership changes. Groups with voluntary membership may exhibit high levels of optimism about what the group can accomplish. Although the optimism can be motivating, unrealistic expectations can lead to disappointment, making it important for group members to balance optimism with realism. Groups with assigned or mandatory membership may include members that carry some degree of resentment toward the group itself or the goals of the group. These members can start the group off on a negative trajectory that will lessen or make difficult group cohesiveness. Groups can still be successful if these members are balanced out by others who are more committed to and positive in regards to the purpose of the group. Many factors influence this stage include: members personalities, their skills, available resources, group size, and the group’s leadership.

 

2.                  Storming

Storming stage begins with people being occupied by their specific roles. The purpose, rules, and norms of a group become clearer. This stage is a natural part of group development which is marked by conflict between members of a group or between the group leader and member. Conflict arises as a result of resistance to the set group rules as well as the demands by members to have their ideas heard and them negotiating where they fit in the group’s structure. Conflict develops when some group members aren’t satisfied with the role that they or others are playing or the decisions regarding the purpose or procedures of the group. E.g. If a leader begins to emerge or is assigned during the forming stage, some members may feel that the leader is imposing his or her will on other members of the group. Leaders should expect some degree of resentment from others who wanted to be the leader, have interpersonal conflicts with the leader, or just have general issues with being led. Conflict has been identified as essential to the process of cohesion because it assists in the establishment of shared norms and values. The outcome of conflict is members getting to decide how the group will operate and what role individuals will play.

 

3.                  Norming

During the normingstage of group development, the practices and expectations of the group are solidified, which leads to more stability, productivity, and cohesion within the group. Here conflicts are resolved and cohesiveness develops. A degree of trust begins to be seen between members. Norms within the group may include politeness, lateness, and communication patterns. Whenever a norm isn’t working for the group it can be challenged and when this happens the group has to go back to the storming stage. At this stage, there is a growing consensus among group members as to the roles that each person will play, the way group interactions will typically play out, and the direction of the group. Group members begin to negotiate about their goals, procedures, rules and division of labor as well as standards of behaviors to which members are expected to conform to. Leaders that began to emerge have typically gained the support of other group members, and group identity begins to solidify.

4.                  Performing/ Co-operating

During the performing stage of group development, work takes off. Group members co-operate to solve interpersonal problems and reach agreed goals. Interactions in the performing stage are majorly task focused; the relational aspects of group interaction provide an underlying support for the group members. In this stage members are able to communicate openly about ideas and information. Energy is used to target group tasks rather than personal issues. During task-related interactions, group members ideally begin to develop a synergy that results from the pooling of skills, ideas, experiences, and resources. Synergy is positive in that it can lead group members to exceed their expectations and perform better than they could individually. Glitches in the group’s performance can lead the group back to previous stages of group development. Changes in membership, member roles, or norms can necessitate a revisiting of aspects of the forming, storming, or norming stages. One way to continue to build group cohesion during the performing stage is to set short-term attainable group goals. Accomplishing something, even if it’s small, can boost group morale, which in turn boosts cohesion and productivity.

5.                  Adjourning

The adjourningstage of group development occurs when a group dissolves because it has completed its purpose or goal, membership is declining and support for the group no longer exists The adjourning stage of group development occurs when a group dissolves because it has completed its purpose or goal, membership is declining and support for the group no longer exists. Here the group terminates its work and members reflect on their achievements and assign meaning to their shared experiences. Members agree on how to end or maintain the interpersonal relationship that may have developed. It is important for the group to have a terminal ritual which can range from an informal debriefing session to a formal gathering. This clears the way for the next challenge that members can engage in. Some groups may live on indefinitely and not experience the adjourning stage. Other groups may experience so much conflict in the storming stage that they skip norming and performing and dissolve before they can complete their task. For groups with high social cohesion, adjourning may be a difficult emotional experience. However, group members may continue interpersonal relationships that formed even after the group dissolves. In reality, many bonds, even those that were very close, end up fading after the group disbands. This doesn’t mean the relationship wasn’t genuine; interpersonal relationships often form because of proximity and shared task interaction. Once that force is gone, it becomes difficult to maintain friendships, and many fade away. For groups that had negative experiences, the adjourning stage may be welcomed. Often, group members leave a group experience with new or more developed skills that can be usefully applied in future group or individual contexts. Even groups that are relational rather than task focused can increase members’ interpersonal, listening, or empathetic skills or increase cultural knowledge and introduce new perspectives.

 

GROUP LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP

The primary role of a group leader is to provide necessary structure and direction for a particular group. According to Johnson and Hackman 19—leadership is a process of using communication to influence the behavior of others to meet group goal. Leadership is enacted through communication and persuasion and not through physical force or coercion .Only the influence that’s designed to benefit the group is termed as small group leadership. A leadertherefore is a person who influences the behavior of and attitude of others through communication. Points to be considered in a successful group include: Leadershipand Authority- Ones’ legitimate right to exercise control over people gives one position. Leaders make people do what needs to be done. They exercise influence rather than coerce. Leaders do have authority but authority alone doesn’t make a good leader. There are 2 types of leaders namely:

1.      Designated leader- Is someone who has been appointed or elected to a leadership position e.g. chair of a group, team leader. An advantage of a designated leader is that groups will benefit from having a leader who adds stability and organization to the group’s activity.

2.      Emergent leader- Is someone who becomes an informal leader by inserting influence towards achievement of a groups’ goal but who does not hold a formal position or leaders’ role. An emergent leader can be any group member who helps the group meets its goals.

 

Rave (1981) identified types of leadership powers as follows:

1. Reward power-Is one where the leader gives followers what they want.
2. Expert power- Occurs when other members value a person’s knowledge or expertise.
3. Referent power- Is power based on others admiration and respect.
4. Charisma power- Is an extreme form of referent power that inspires strong loyalty and devotion from others.
5. Punishment power- Is one where the leader withholds from followers what they want or need.
6. Correction power- Is a form of punishment power that attempts to force compliance using hostile, dirty and/ or threatening tactics.

 

 

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO GROUP LEADERSHIP/STYLE APPROACHES (Types of leaders)

Style approaches on studying leadership focus on the patterns of behavior leaders’ exhibit in a group. The THREE major styles include:

1. Democratic leadership

Democratic leaders encourage members to participate in group decisions, even major ones

Here authority is shared and all group members help make decisions.

Leaders do not dominate conversations and it is a group directive.

2. Laissez- faire leadership

Here leaders refuse responsibility over the group

Leaders also do not supervise group members to ensure task is done completed in an effective and efficient manner.

Such leaders do not take any initiative in structuring a group discussion and are very indecisive.

This type of leadership is a “hands off” type of model and has a less chance of experiencing group think.

3. Autocratic/ Authoritarian leadership

Leaders maintain strict control over their groups including making assignments and giving orders.

It is a directive type of leadership where the leader accepts responsibility for group.

He/ she also do close supervision of other members.

N/B:

ü  Groups work best when all members contribute skills and leadership behavior on behalf of the group.

ü  Successful groups are marked by flexible leaders, high level of cohesion and by feelings among members that they share common goals

 

 

Qualities of a good leader

1. Communicate to the group in a clear and effective manner.
2. Does not dominate conversations.
3. Skilled at facilitating discussions.
4. Display respect for others during discussions.
5. Have a clear grasp of the task facing the group.
6. Encourage open dialogue between group members.
7. Prioritize group needs over personal concerns.
8. Share in the successes or failures of group.
9. Accepts  responsibility on behalf of the group
10. Allows for members contribution in decision making.

 

How good leadership skills are developed

For a person to develop good leadership skills they should:

1. Have sufficient knowledge about a particular task
2. Set an example by working harder than anyone in the group
3. Show sincerity by being personally committed to group’s goals and needs
4. Be decisive at key moments in the discussion
5. Interact freely with all members of the group but at the same time being careful not to dominate the discussions
6. Develop skills in maintenance functions as well as task functions so that the group remains cohesive and functional.

 

GROUP DYNAMICS

Groups make it easier for us to complete a wide variety of tasks; help us establish meaningful social bonds; and help us create, maintain, and change our sense of self (Owen Hargie 2011). Negative group experiences are often worsened by a lack of knowledge about group communication processes. We are just expected to know how to work in groups without much instruction or practice. This lack of knowledge about group communication can lead to negative group interactions, which creates a negative cycle that perpetuates further negative experiences. Fortunately, as with other areas of communication, instruction in group communication can improve people’s skills and increase people’s satisfaction with their group experiences.

Any time a group of people come together, new dynamics are put into place that differs from the dynamics present in our typical interactions. The impressions we form about other people’s likeability and the way we think about a group’s purpose are affected by the climate within a group that is created by all members. Groups also develop norms, and new group members are socialized into a group’s climate and norms just as we are socialized into larger social and cultural norms in our everyday life. The pressure to conform to norms becomes more powerful in group situations, and some groups take advantage of these forces with positive and negative results. The potential for productive and destructive conflict increases as multiple individuals come together to accomplish a task or achieve a purpose. Even though group members are different, failure to conform to the group’s identity could create problems.

 Conformity

In general, some people are more likely to accept norms and rules than others, which can influence the interaction and potential for conflict within a group. While some people may feel a need for social acceptance that leads them to accept a norm or rule with minimal conformity pressure, others may actively resist because they have a valid disagreement or because they have an aggressive or argumentative personality.

Cohesion

The cohesion within a group helps establish an overall group climate i.e. appropriate levels of group cohesion usually create a positive group climate, since group climate is affected by members’ satisfaction with the group. Task cohesion refers to the commitment of group members to the purpose and activities of the group. Social cohesionrefers to the attraction and liking among group members. Ideally, groups would have an appropriate balance between these two types of cohesion relative to the group’s purpose, with task-oriented groups having higher task cohesion and relational-oriented groups having higher social cohesion. Cohesion benefits a group in many ways and can be assessed through specific group behaviors and characteristics. Groups with an appropriate level of cohesiveness Owen Hargie, Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice, 5th ed. (London: Rutledge, 2011), 445.

·         set goals easily;

·         exhibit a high commitment to achieving the purpose of the group;

·         are more productive;

·         experience fewer attendance issues;

·         have group members who are willing to stick with the group during times of difficulty;

·         have satisfied group members who identify with, promote, and defend the group;

·         have members who are willing to listen to each other and offer support and constructive criticism; and

·         Experience less anger and tension.

Cohesion and shared identity help create symbolic convergence as group members develop a group identity and shared social reality. The following are some qualities that contribute to a positive group climate and morale. Peter J. Marston and Michael L. Hecht (1988

·         Participation. Group members feel better when they feel included in discussion and a part of the functioning of the group.

·         Messages. Confirming messages help build relational dimensions within a group, and clear, organized, and relevant messages help build task dimensions within a group.

·         Feedback. Positive, constructive, and relevant feedback contribute to group climate.

·         Equity. Aside from individual participation, group members also like to feel as if participation is managed equally within the group and that appropriate turn taking is used.

·         Clear and accepted roles. Group members like to know how status and hierarchy operate within a group. Knowing the roles isn’t enough to lead to satisfaction, though—members must also be comfortable with and accept those roles.

·         Motivation. Member motivation is activated by perceived connection to and relevance of the group’s goals or purpose.

 

Groupthink

It is a negative group phenomenon which refers to faulty decision making within a group. Groups that experience group think do not experience conflicts since they desire unity at the expense of quality decision. Group think occurs when groups are cohesive

Symptoms of group think

1.       Having an illusion of vulnerability

2.       Rationalizing poor judgment

3.       Believing in the group’s morality “we are the best”

4.       Members not expressing their true feelings

5.       Maintaining an illusion of unity

6.       Sharing stereotypes which guide the decisions

7.       Using mind guards to protect the group from negative information

Negative outcome of group think

·         Not being critical of each other’s ideas

·         Not examining early alternatives

·         Not seeking expert opinion

·         Not having contingency plans

·         Being highly selective in gathering information

·         Examining few alternatives

Solutions for group think

·         Using outside experts

·         Using policy forming groups which refer to a larger group

·         Having leaders remain impartial

·         Using the devil’s advocate to query all the group’s ideas (devil’s advocate is someone who always has a contrary opinion or challenges ideas).

·         Holding a second “2^nd chance” meeting to offer one last opportunity for members to choose another cause of action.

 

GROUP COMMUNICATION

People in a successful group feel as if they belong i.e. they own the group. The roles we take up in a group are affected by our own personalities. We have to determine our own personalities before we look at other group member’s personalities. Individuals do affect groups and groups also do affect individuals. Groups have a culture. Members of a cohesive group share a set of basic assumptions and speak a common language (not necessarily English and Kiswahili). It may be a shared language like mother tongue or “sheng’” depending on the type of group, interaction will vary from vertical, horizontal, diagonal and centrifugal. The best type of interaction being centrifugal; where all group members including the leader communicate openly and all have an equal opportunity to participate.

Small group communication refers to interactions among three or more people who are connected through a common purpose, mutual influence, and a shared identity. Small groups are important communication units in academic, professional, civic, and personal contexts.

Advantages of group communication

1.       Shared decision making

2.       Shared resources

3.       Synergy

4.       Exposure to diversity.

Disadvantages of group communication

1.      Unnecessary group formation (when the task would be better performed by one person).

2.      Difficulty coordinating schedules.

3.      Difficulty with accountability.

4.      Social loafing.